Glimpses into the Life of Al-Ghazali

By, Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak and Raudlotul Firdaus Fatah Yasin

Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali who happened to be a popular figure during the Golden Era of the Muslims is more often known to the world as Imam Al-Ghazali (450H/1058 – 505H/1111). During his time, he was an eminent Muslim jurist, Sufi scholar and thinker. In realizing the great potential of Al-Ghazali, the Seljuk Regime sought his expertise to be their entrusted scholar to repudiate the challenges that came from the philosophers, Batiniyyah, rationalists and others. As a versatile scholar who could debate and reason with his opponents, Al-Ghazali was called Hujjatul Islam (‘authority on Islam’ or ‘proof of Islam’). Although some claimed that he was a philosopher, personally Al-Ghazali chose not to be identified as one, due to the many controversies that surrounded the philosophers of his time, like Al-Kindi (801-873), Al-Farabi (872-950) and Ibn Sina (980-1037).

His Conflict with the Philosophers

Rooted deeply in the teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah, Al-Ghazali became critical of the ideas propagated by Muslim philosophers who were overly influenced by the philosophy of ancient Greek thinkers. In his observation, Muslims encountering the philosophies of the Greeks, Persians, and Indians, became exceedingly enthusiastic and began translating these works without applying proper discernment. This uncritical adoption resulted in the widespread acceptance of Neoplatonism and an overemphasis on the rational mind, often at the expense of undermining the significance of God’s revelation. Concerned by this trend, Al-Ghazali sought to caution Muslim philosophers about the potential dangers of Greek philosophy. Motivated by these concerns, he authored Tahāfut al-Falāsifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers). In this treaty, Al-Ghazali urged the Muslim philosophers of his time to adhere strictly to the true teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah, and to reject the uncritical imitation of Greek philosophy. His critique was particularly directed at philosophers like Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi, who, in his view, had strayed by embracing the philosophical ideas of the Greeks. While Al-Ghazali acknowledged that certain aspects of Greek philosophy aligned with the spirit of knowledge and contemplation encouraged by the Qur’an, he believed that other elements were in direct conflict with the core teachings of Islam. He argued that these ideas needed to be Islamized before they could be accepted by Muslims.

Any researcher of Al-Ghazali’s ideas will realise that through his work Tahāfut al-Falāsifa, the great Imam was essentially advocating for what we now refer to as the Islamization of knowledge. Although the term “Islamization” is contemporary and was popularized by the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), the concept itself can be traced back to Al-Ghazali’s time. While Al-Ghazali did not use this specific term, the essence of what he proposed aligns with the modern-day practice of Islamization of Human Sciences.

Al-Ghazali argued that beneficial knowledge from sources outside the Islamic tradition must be Islamized because the values inherent in such knowledge may not always be compatible with Islamic principles. When we examine Al-Ghazali’s approach in a modern context, it can be interpreted as following a “3A” approach.

Under this approach, one is encouraged to Adopt (the first “A”) the positive aspects of what is offered by other civilizations. This must then be Adapted (the second “A”) to align with Islamic teachings, meaning that only the elements consistent with the Islamic faith are retained, while those that conflict with it are discarded. Finally, the acceptable portions of external knowledge are Assimilated (the third “A”) into the existing body of Islamic knowledge. Through this approach, the Muslim Ummah will be able to expand its repertoire of knowledge. Moreover, this aligns with the Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), which states: ‘The wise statement is the lost property of the believer; wherever he finds it, he is more worthy of it’.

Al-Ghazali’s Quest for Inner Understanding

Al-Ghazali who occupied a prestigious position at the Nizzamiyya University in Baghdad, decided to resign his post and undertook a soul-searching journey into other parts of the Arabian Peninsula. He travelled to countries like Palestine, Persia, and the Levant to engage intellectually with other scholars. During those travels, he also visited Mecca to perform his Hajj pilgrimage. For Al-Ghazali, the travels were not only important to clear his mind from the intellectual and spiritual crises which he had before leaving his academic post, but also as a form of spiritual upliftment and a deepening of his understanding of his Islamic faith. Thank God, all his travels, and soul-searching experiences he went through rewarded him with the much-anticipated enlightenment of his soul. 

Upon attaining peace and the serenity of his mind gained through Sufi practices which he undertook during his travels, he wrote his magnum opus the Ihyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn (Revival of the Religious Sciences). In this masterpiece, Al-Ghazali dealt with the many aspects of the human Nafs (human Self). Besides that, in this book, the great Imam elaborated on the many dimensions of human life, physical and spiritual cleanliness, knowledge, worship, man-God relationship, man-to-man relationship, etc. 

Al-Ghazali’s Perspective on Human Nature

Al-Ghazali’s research into the Qur’an and Sunnah led him to believe that among all of Allah’s creations on earth, man occupies a position midway between animals and angels. He further expounded that man could ascend to the level of angels when guided by correct knowledge and righteous acts. Conversely, man is equally vulnerable descending to the lowest depths, resembling animals in character and conduct, when dominated by anger and lust. As a great teacher, Al-Ghazali strongly emphasized the critical role of knowledge in the growth and development of the soul. He argued that knowledge is essential for realizing the ideal state envisioned in the teachings of Islam. To him, education is not just for the body, but also for the mind and soul.

In Ihyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn as well as in many other works, Al-Ghazali wrote quite extensively on how man can purify his soul from lowly animalistic passions through religious rituals and meditation. In many of his writings, he has also provided ways and means by which man can change his behaviour to be a better person to attain the spiritual upliftment that will grant him happiness in this life and everlasting felicity in the hereafter. Even though his book Ihyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn calls Muslims to an improved state of God-conscious life which is religious, nonetheless many of the aspects mentioned in it about man also reveal the psychological aspect of human nature.

Al-Ghazali extensively elaborated on the nature of the human soul and its psycho-spiritual development towards perfection. His insights into the psycho-spiritual development of the soul can be interpreted through the lens of modern psychology as a form of personality development. Al-Ghazali’s ideas on the journey towards Insān Kāmil (the perfect man) or Insān Sālih (the righteous man) emphasize the importance of maintaining good mental health and engaging in spiritual training. This spiritual discipline is crucial in averting the spiritual maladies that can afflict the human soul. In the chapter on Kitāb Riyādah al-Nafs (spiritual training), which explains the Amrād al-Qulūb (spiritual diseases of the heart), Al-Ghazali delved deeply into various spiritual diseases that afflict the human soul, such as envy, pride, greed, selfishness, and egocentrism. In addition, he offered remedies for many of these spiritual and psychological illnesses of human beings.

Since Al-Ghazali’s works and contributions to the study of human nature cover a large area of psychology such as human perception, cognition, affection, emotion, motivation, personality development, mental health, etc. it can be said that Al-Ghazali’s research on human nature exceeds the limits of modern psychology. By and large, he ventured to investigate the human soul, not only as a substance/ entity but also as its many functions in the human body that produce human actions and behaviour. In comparing what had been done by Al-Ghazali in the areas of human nature and personality development, much of what is achieved in modern-day psychology is to mainly explore and investigate overt human behaviour without considering the fact from where human actions and behaviours emanate from the human body. 

The Spiritual Dimension of Man

Some Muslim scholars believe that the spiritual aspect of a person is made up of four components: the Ruh (soul), ‘Aql (intellect), Nafs (self), and Qalb (heart). However, another group of scholars, including Al-Ghazali, argue that these are not separate entities but rather different functions of the same essence.

Al-Ghazali explained that the Ruh—the soul that enters the fetus in the womb—operates at four different levels as a person matures. As we grow, various desires like hunger, marriage, envy, anger, and greed are driven by the Nafs or the self. When we seek knowledge from the world around us, the ‘Aql (our intellect) helps us process and understand it. Our senses serve as gateways for this knowledge to reach the ‘Aql. Finally, the Qalb, or heart, is considered the center of spiritual knowledge, emotions, personality, character (akhlāq), etc. 

In exploring Al-Ghazali’s views on human nature in Ihyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn, Kimiya-yi Sa‘ādat (“The Alchemy of Happiness”), and other works, the following are some of the characteristics he found in human beings::

1. Al-Jasadiah (Bodily Attributes): This refers to the physical body and its needs for physical well-being, health, and nourishment.
2. Hayawaniah (Animal Attributes): This aspect addresses the instinctual and emotional facets of human beings, such as desires, fears, and impulses that drive behaviour.
3. Rabbaniyyah (Divine Attributes): These motivate man to seek divine inspiration, moral excellence, inner purity, and show compassion, mercy, forgiveness, and a meaningful life.
4. Shaitaniah (Devilish Attributes): This refers to the negative or demonic aspects within human nature that divert one from the spiritual and moral paths.
5. Malakaniah (Angelic Attributes): This quality reflects the higher, spiritual aspects of human nature, embodying purity, wisdom, obedience, and moral integrity to God.

Al-Ghazali metaphorically described the human soul as a mirror that reflects the good or evil qualities of an individual. Acts of virtue make the soul shine, resplendent and bright, while the evil and sinful acts of an individual incur spiritual darkness in the soul.

It can be seen clearly that Al-Ghazali through many of his writings has highlighted the important position of the soul in the human body. In his opinion, the soul represents the actual human being, while the observable disposition of man is just the reflection of man’s inner dimension. Moreover, the behaviour of an individual is just the portrayal of his actual psychic condition, otherwise known as the state of his soul. In summation, Al-Ghazali thinks that human behaviour is the exact manifestation of one’s spiritual well-being.

The Role of Education and the Human Development

According to Al-Ghazali, the seed of knowledge is embedded within the human soul. Through parenting and education, this seed grows into a tree that bears fruit. In his writings, Al-Ghazali emphasized the importance of knowledge and education, expressing his conviction that true knowledge can enlighten the human soul. He believed that human beings could change when provided with proper education. Moreover, Al-Ghazali drew an analogy between humans and wild animals, noting that just as wild animals can be trained to perform acrobatic stunts, humans too can improve their behaviour through education and become better individuals.

Al-Ghazali also compared a child to an uncut diamond in the hands of a craftsman. Just as a skilled craftsman can bring out the sparkle in a raw diamond through precision cutting, so too can parents and educators, through proper guidance and education, bring out the best that is latent in a child’s soul.

Ibn Rushd’s Rebuttal to Al-Ghazali

Philosophy, which went into a deep slumber after Al-Ghazali’s criticism, was somehow revived during the time of Ibn Rushd (1126-1198), who is known as the last of the Muslim philosophers of the Golden Age. As a jurist and philosopher, Ibn Rushd blamed Al-Ghazali for ‘killing’ the growth of philosophy in the Muslim world. To him, Al-Ghazali’s Tahāfut al-Falāsifa was a verdict that discouraged Muslims from pursuing philosophy. In response, Ibn Rushd, an Andalusian scholar, wrote against Al-Ghazali’s work, arguing that the great Imam was wrong in his criticism of philosophy. Ibn Rushd’s Tahāfut At-Tahāfut was a rebuttal aimed at dismantling Al-Ghazali’s arguments. According to Ibn Rushd, the Qur’an’s invitation to think, ponder, contemplate, compare, contrast, observe, and evaluate aligns with the philosophical method of inquiry.

(Dr. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak is an academic in the Department of Fundamental & Inter-Disciplinary Studies, AbdulHamid AbuSulayman Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Raudlotul Firdaus Fatah Yasin is an academic in the Department of Qurʾan and Sunnah Studies of the same Kulliyyah at the International Islamic University Malaysia.)